Ultrasound representation of Urinary bladder (black butterfly-like shape) and hyperplastic prostate. An example of engineering science and medical science working together.

Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail.

Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology. This field seeks to close the gap between engineering and medicine: It combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical and biological sciences to improve healthcare diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.^[1]

Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own discipline, compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as MRIs and EEGs, regenerative tissue growth, pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic biologicals.

Subdisciplines within biomedical engineering[link]

• Biomedical Electronics
• Biomechatronics
• Bioinstrumentation
• Biomaterials
• Biomechanics
• Bionics
• Cellular, Tissue, and Genetic Engineering
• Clinical Engineering
• Medical Imaging
• Orthopaedic Bioengineering
• Rehabilitation engineering
• Systems Physiology
• Bionanotechnology
• Neural Engineering

Sometimes, disciplines within BME are classified by their association(s) with other, more established engineering fields, which can include:

• Chemical engineering - often associated with biochemical, cellular, molecular and tissue engineering, biomaterials, and biotransport.
• Electrical engineering - often associated with bioelectrical and neural engineering, bioinstrumentation, biomedical imaging, and medical devices. This also tends to encompass Optics and Optical engineering - biomedical optics, imaging and related medical devices.
• Mechanical engineering - often associated with biomechanics, biotransport, medical devices, and modeling of biological systems, like soft tissue mechanics.

Bionics and Biomedical Engineer[link]

Artificial body part replacement is just one of the things that bionics can do. Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems. Careful study of the different function and processes of the eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other useful tools. These developments have indeed made our lives better, but the best contribution that bionics has made is in the field of biomedical engineering. Biomedical Engineering is the building of useful replacements for various parts of the human body. Modern hospitals now have available spare parts to replace a part of the body that is badly damaged by injury or disease. Biomedical engineers who work hand in hand with doctors build these artificial body parts.

Biotechnology (see also relatedly bioengineering) can be a somewhat ambiguous term, sometimes loosely used interchangeably with BME in general; however, it more typically denotes specific products which use "biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof." ^[2] Even some complex "medical devices" (see below) can reasonably be deemed "biotechnology" depending on the degree to which such elements are central to their principle of operation. Biologics/Biopharmaceuticals (e.g., vaccines, stored blood product), genetic engineering, and various agricultural applications are some major classes of biotechnology.

Pharmaceuticals are related to biotechnology in two indirect ways: 1) certain major types (e.g. biologics) fall under both categories, and 2) together they essentially comprise the "non-medical-device" set of BME applications. (The "Device - Bio/Chemical" spectrum is an imperfect dichotomy, but one regulators often use, at least as a starting point.)

Tissue engineering[link]

Tissue engineering is a major segment of Biotechnology.

One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid jawbones^[3] and tracheas from human stem cells towards this end. Several artificial urinary bladders actually have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients.^[4] Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological components, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.^[5]

Micromass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with Alcian blue.

Genetic engineering[link]

Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes. Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly. Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly. Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications. Some examples are in improving crop technology (not a medical application per se; see BioSystems Engineering), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research.

Neural engineering[link]

Neural engineering (also known as Neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs.

Pharmaceutical engineering[link]

Pharmaceutical Engineering is sometimes regarded as a branch of biomedical engineering, and sometimes a branch of chemical engineering; in practice, it is very much a hybrid sub-discipline (as many BME fields are). Aside from those pharmaceutical products directly incorporating biological agents or materials, even developing chemical drugs is considered to require substantial BME knowledge due to the physiological interactions inherent to such products' usage. With the increasing prevalence of "combination products," the lines are now blurring among healthcare products such as drugs, biologics, and various types of devices.

Medical devices[link]

This is an extremely broad category -- essentially covering all health care products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism.

A medical device is intended for use in:

• the diagnosis of disease or other conditions, or
• in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease,

Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants.

Biomedical instrumentation amplifier schematic used in monitoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electronic engineering to electrophysiology.

Stereolithography is a practical example of medical modeling being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, and early diagnosis of complex diseases.

Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also Regulation):

1. Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments and other similar types of common equipment.
2. Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include x-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.
3. Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement heart valves, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants.

Medical imaging[link]

Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of medical devices. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, other radiology, and other means.

An MRI scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to diagnostic imaging. Click here to view an animated sequence of slices.

Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including:

• Fluoroscopy
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Nuclear medicine
• Positron emission tomography (PET) PET scansPET-CT scans
• Projection radiography such as X-rays and CT scans
• Tomography
• Ultrasound
• Optical microscopy
• Electron microscopy

Implants[link]

An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite depending on what is the most functional. In some cases implants contain electronics e.g. artificial pacemaker and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting stents.

Artificial limbs: The right arm is an example of a prosthesis, and the left arm is an example of myoelectric control.

Clinical engineering[link]

Clinical engineering is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of medical equipment and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs), selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state-of-the-art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly.

Their inherent focus on practical implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards incremental-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a "bridge" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both 1) close to the point-of-use, while 2) trained in product and process engineering. Clinical Engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc. Also see safety engineering for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems.

Schematic representation of a normal ECG trace showing sinus rhythm; an example of widely-used clinical medical equipment (operates by applying electronic engineering to electrophysiology and medical diagnosis.

A point of reference for clinical engineers would be the catalogue published by the American Society for Hospital Engineering in the Hospital Engineering Reference Series called Maintenance Management for Medical Equipment.

Regulatory issues[link]

Regulatory issues are of particular concern to a biomedical engineer; it is among the most heavily-regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical devices, drugs, biologics, and combination products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and efficacy of healthcare products.^{[citation needed]}

In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for "consumer" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also "medical" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K "clearance" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market "approval" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices).

Implants, such as artificial hip joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.

Most countries have their own particular mechanisms for regulation, with varying formulations and degrees of restrictiveness. In most European countries, more discretion rests with the prescribing doctor, while the regulations chiefly assure that the product operates as expected. In European Union nations, the national governments license certifying agencies, which are for-profit companies. Technical committees of engineers write recommendations which incorporate public comments, and these can be adopted as regulations by the European Union. These recommendations vary by the type of device, and specify tests for safety and efficacy. Once a prototype has passed the tests at a certification lab, and that model is being constructed under the control of a certified quality system, the device is entitled to bear a CE mark, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and reliable when used as directed.

The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical differences about the optimal extent of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments.

Training and certification[link]

Education[link]

Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Master's (M.S., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a Doctoral (Ph.D.) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.S., B.Eng or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. As noted above, biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as its own discipline rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering which actually includes so much biological science content that many students use it as a "pre-med" major in preparation for medical school. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology.^[6]

In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. Over 65 programs are currently accredited by ABET.^[7][8]

In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs in Biomedical Engineering are common, for example in Universities such as McMaster University, and the first Canadian undergraduate BME program at Ryerson University offering a four year B.Eng program.^{[9][10][11][12]} The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors's degree in biomedicale engineering.

As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees are also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program.

Graduate education is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them.^[13] Since most BME-related professions involve scientific research, such as in pharmaceutical and medical device development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a masters degree or apply to medical school afterwards.

Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the University's Medical School or other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or another engineering discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or life science (plus certain engineering coursework).

Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards.^[14] Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education.^[15] Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.

Licensure/certification[link]

Engineering licensure in the US is largely optional, and rarely specified by branch/discipline. As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered Professional Engineer (PE), but in practice such a license is not required to practice in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the private industry exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine.

Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required.^[16]

In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering, Bioengineering or Biomedical engineering can gain Chartered Engineer status through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division.^[17]

The Fundamentals of Engineering exam - the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions—does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure.

Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers.

Founding figures[link]

• Leslie Geddes (deceased)- Professor Emeritus at Purdue University, electrical engineer, inventor, and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a National Medal of Technology in 2006 from President George Bush^[18] for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
• Y. C. Fung - professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego, considered by many to be the founder of modern Biomechanics^[19]
• Robert Langer - Institute Professor at MIT, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug delivery and tissue engineering^[20]
• Herbert Lissner (deceased) - Professor of Engineering Mechanics at Wayne State University. Initiated studies on blunt head trauma and injury thresholds beginning in 1939 in collaboration with Dr. E.S. Gurdjian, a neurosurgeon at Wayne State's School of Medicine. Individual for whom the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' top award in Biomedical Engineering, the Herbert R. Lissner Medal, is named.
• Nicholas A. Peppas - Chaired Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and nanobiotechnology.
• Otto Schmitt (deceased) - biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with biomimetics
• Ascher Shapiro (deceased) - Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons)
• John G. Webster - Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, a pioneer in the field of instrumentation amplifiers for the recording of electrophysiological signals
• Robert Plonsey - Professor Emeritus at Duke University, pioneer of electrophysiology^[21]
• U. A. Whitaker (deceased) - provider of The Whitaker Foundation, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings^[22]
• Frederick Thurstone (deceased) - Professor Emeritus at Duke University, pioneer of diagnostic ultrasound^[23]
• Kenneth R. Diller - Chaired and Endowed Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin. Founded the BME department at UT Austin. Pioneer in bioheat transfer, mass transfer, and biotransport
• Alfred E. Mann - Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering.^[24]
• Forrest Bird - aviator and pioneer in the invention of mechanical ventilators
• Willem Johan Kolff (deceased) - pioneer of hemodialysis as well as in the field of artificial organs
• John James Rickard Macleod(deceased) - one of the co-discoverers of insulin at Case Western Reserve University.
• Shalaby W. Shalaby (deceased, Poly-Med, Inc.) - early developer of resorbable polymer sutures and devices

References[link]

Shalaby W. shalaby (deceased, Poly-Med, Inc.) - early developer of resorbable polymer sutures and devices

Further reading[link]

• Bronzino, Joseph D. (April 2006). The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition. [CRC Press]. ISBN 978-0-8493-2124-5. http://crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849321245. 
• Villafane, Carlos, CBET. (June 2009). Biomed: From the Student's Perspective, First Edition. [Techniciansfriend.com]. ISBN 978-1-61539-663-4. http://www.biomedtechnicians.com. 
• Information related to biomedical engineering.
• Medical engineering stories in the news [2]

External links[link]

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Biomedical engineering at: The Department of Biomedical engineering

• Biomedical Engineering at the Open Directory Project

Saint John Fisher
John Fisher, by Hans Holbein the Younger
Cardinal; bishop and martyr
Born	c. (1469-10-19)19 October 1469[1] Beverley, Yorkshire, England
Died	22 June 1535(1535-06-22) (aged 65) Tower Hill, London, England
Honored in	Roman Catholic Church, Church of England
Beatified	29 December 1886, Rome by Pope Leo XIII
Canonized	19 May 1935, Rome by Pope Pius XI
Feast	22 June (Roman Catholic Church) 6 July (Church of England)
Patronage	Diocese of Rochester

Saint John Fisher (1459^[2] /c. 19 October 1469^[1] – 22 June 1535) was an English Roman Catholic scholastic, cardinal, and martyr. He shares his feast day with Saint Thomas More on 22 June in the Roman Catholic calendar of saints and on 6 July in the Anglican. Fisher was executed by order of King Henry VIII during the English Reformation for refusing to accept the king as Supreme Head of the Church of England and for upholding the Roman Catholic Church's doctrine of papal primacy.

Early life[link]

John Fisher was born in Beverley, Yorkshire, England in 1469, the eldest son of Robert Fisher, a modestly prosperous merchant of Beverley, and Agnes, his wife. He was one of four children. His father died when John was 8. His mother remarried and had five more children by her second husband, William White. Fisher seems to have had close contacts with his extended family all his life. Fisher's early education was probably received in the school attached to the collegiate church in his home town. He attended Beverley Grammar School, an old foundation claiming to date from the year 700. In the present day, one of the houses at the school is named in Fisher's honour.

Fisher studied at the University of Cambridge from 1484, where at Michaelhouse he came under the influence of William Melton, a pastorally-minded theologian open to the new current of reform in studies arising from the Renaissance. Fisher earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1487 and in 1491, proceeded to a Master of Arts degree. The same year he was elected a fellow of his college.^[3] He was also made Vicar of Northallerton, Yorkshire. In 1494 he resigned his benefice to become proctor of the university and three years later was appointed master debator, about which date he also became chaplain and confessor to Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of King Henry VII. On 5 July 1501, he became a doctor of sacred theology and 10 days later was elected Vice-Chancellor of the University. Under Fisher's guidance, his patroness Lady Margaret founded St John's and Christ's Colleges at Cambridge, and a Lady Margaret Professorship of Divinity at each of the two universities at Oxford and Cambridge, Fisher himself becoming the first occupant of the Cambridge chair. He was also in the years 1505 to 1508 the President of Queens' College. At the end of July 1516 he was at Cambridge for the opening of St John's College and consecrated the chapel.

Fisher's strategy was to assemble funds and attract to Cambridge leading scholars from Europe, promoting the study not only of Classical Latin and Greek authors, but of Hebrew. He was in his heart and soul a priest, and placed great weight upon pastoral commitment, above all popular preaching by the endowed staff. Fisher's foundations were also dedicated to prayer for the dead, especially through chantry foundations. Fisher had a wide and deep vision to which he dedicated all his personal resources and energies. A scholar and a priest, harsh with himself, humble and conscientious, he managed despite occasional opposition to carry with him and administer a whole university, one of only two in England. He conceived and saw through long-term projects, following them when he saw the chance. His production of learned and spiritual publications in the midst of a busy life and his attitude to persevere with learning Latin and Hebrew even when he was older show the man's willingness to achieve the extraordinary.

Bishop[link]

By Papal Bull dated 14 October 1504, Fisher was appointed the Bishop of Rochester at the personal insistence of Henry VII. Rochester was then the poorest diocese in England and usually seen as a first step on an ecclesiastical career, but Fisher stayed there, presumably by his own choice, for the remaining 31 years of his life. He aimed at becoming a model bishop. At the same time, like any English bishop of his day, he had certain state duties. In particular, he maintained a passionate interest in the University of Cambridge. In 1504 he was elected the university's chancellor and was re-elected annually for 10 years and then appointed for life. At this date he is also said to have acted as tutor to Prince Henry, afterwards King Henry VIII. As a preacher his reputation was so great that in 1509, during which both King Henry VII and the Lady Margaret died, Fisher was appointed to preach the funeral oration on both occasions, the texts being still extant.

Despite his fame and eloquence, it was not long before Fisher was in conflict with the new king, his former pupil, Henry VIII. The dispute arose over funds left by the Lady Margaret, the King's grandmother, for the financing of the foundations at Cambridge.

Besides his share in the Lady Margaret's foundations, Fisher gave further proof of his genuine zeal for learning by inducing Erasmus to visit Cambridge. The latter ("Epistulae" 6:2) attributes it to Fisher's protection that the study of Greek was allowed to proceed at Cambridge without the active molestation that it encountered at Oxford.

In 1512 Fisher was nominated as one of the English representatives at the Fifth Council of the Lateran, then sitting, but his journey to Rome was postponed, and finally abandoned.

Fisher has also been named, though without any real proof, as the true author of the royal treatise against Martin Luther entitled "Assertio septem sacramentorum" (The Defense of the Seven Sacraments), published in 1521, which won for King Henry VIII the title "Fidei Defensor" (Defender of the Faith). Prior to this date Fisher had denounced various abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, urging the need of disciplinary reforms. On about 11 February 1526, at the King's command, he preached a famous sermon against Luther at St Paul's Cross, the open-air pulpit outside St Paul's Cathedral in London. This was in the wake of numerous other controversial writings and the battle against heterodox teachings was to occupy increasingly his later years. In 1529 Fisher ordered the arrest of Thomas Hitton, a follower of William Tyndale, and subsequently interrogated him. Hitton was, according to Tyndale, tortured and executed at the stake for heresy.^[4]

Defence of Catherine of Aragon[link]

When the question of Henry's divorce from Queen Catherine of Aragon arose, Fisher became the Queen's chief supporter and most trusted counselor. In this capacity he appeared on the Queen's behalf in the legates' court, where he startled his hearers by the directness of his language and most of all by declaring that, like St John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. This statement was reported to Henry VIII, who was so enraged by it that he himself composed a long Latin address to the legates in answer to the bishop's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared the royal anger. The removal of the cause to Rome brought Fisher's personal share therein to an end, but the king never forgave him for what he had done.

Henry's attack on the Church[link]

In November 1529, the "Long Parliament" of Henry's reign began its series of encroachments on the Roman Catholic Church. Fisher, as a member of the upper house, at once warned Parliament that such acts could only end in the utter destruction of the Roman Catholic Church in England. On this the Commons, through their speaker, complained to the king that Fisher had disparaged Parliament, presumably with Henry prompting them behind the scenes. The opportunity was not lost. Henry summoned Fisher before him, demanding an explanation. This being given, Henry declared himself satisfied, leaving it to the Commons to declare that the explanation was inadequate, so that he appeared as a magnanimous sovereign, instead of Fisher's enemy.

A year later, in 1530, the continued encroachments on the Church moved Fisher, as Bishop of Rochester, along with the Bishops of Bath and Ely, to appeal to the Holy See. This gave the King his opportunity and an edict forbidding such appeals was immediately issued, and the three bishops were arrested. Their imprisonment, however, must have lasted a few months only for in February 1531, Convocation met, and Fisher was present. This was the occasion when the clergy were forced, at a cost of 100,000 pounds, to purchase the king's pardon for having recognized Cardinal Thomas Wolsey's authority as legate of the pope; and at the same time to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church in England, to which phrase, but the addition of the clause "so far as God's law permits" was made through Fisher's efforts.

A few days later, several of Fisher's servants were taken ill after eating some porridge served to the household and two died. A cook, Richard Rice, was executed for attempted poisoning.

"The King's Great Matter"[link]

Matters now moved rapidly. In May 1532, Sir Thomas More resigned the chancellorship and, in June, Fisher preached publicly against the divorce. In August, William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, died and Thomas Cranmer was at once proposed by Henry to the Pope as his successor. In January of the next year, Henry secretly went through a form of marriage with Anne Boleyn. Cranmer's consecration as a bishop took place in March 1533, and, a week later, Fisher was arrested. It seems that the purpose of this arrest was to prevent him from opposing the sentence of divorce which Cranmer pronounced in May, or the coronation of Anne Boleyn which followed on 1 June, for Fisher was set at liberty again within a fortnight of the latter event, no charge being made against him. In the autumn of 1533, various arrests were made in connection with the so-called revelations of the Holy Maid of Kent, Elizabeth Barton, but as Fisher was taken seriously ill in December, proceedings against him were postponed for a time. However, in March 1534, a special Bill of Attainder against Fisher and others for complicity in the matter of the Maid of Kent was introduced in Parliament and passed. By this, Fisher was condemned to forfeit all his personal estate and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. Subsequently a pardon was granted him on payment of a fine of 300 pounds.

The same session of Parliament passed the First Succession Act, by which all who should be called upon to do so were compelled to take an oath of succession, acknowledging the issue of Henry and Anne as legitimate heirs to the throne, under pain of being guilty of misprision of treason. Fisher refused the oath and was sent to the Tower of London on 26 April 1534. Several efforts were made to induce him to submit, but without effect, and in November he was attained of misprision of treason a second time, his goods being forfeited as from the previous First of March, and the See of Rochester being declared vacant as of 2 June following. He was to remain in the Tower for over a year, and while he was allowed food and drink sent by friends, and a servant, he was not allowed a priest, even to the very end. A long letter exists, written from the Tower by Fisher to Thomas Cromwell, speaking of the severity of his conditions of imprisonment.

As Thomas More, Bishop Fisher believed that because the statute condemned only those speaking maliciously against the King's new title, there was safety in silence. However, on 7 May he fell into a trap laid for him by Richard Rich, who was to perjure himself to obtain Thomas More's conviction. Rich told Fisher that for his own conscience's sake the King wished to know, in strict secrecy, Fisher's real opinion. A priest accustomed to secrecy in matters of conscience, Fisher was taken in and said that he was convinced "that the King was not, nor could be, by the Law of God, Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England". By saying this, he had fallen foul of the law.

Cardinalate and execution[link]

The armorial bearings of Cardinal Fisher

In May 1535, the new pope, Paul III, created Fisher Cardinal-Priest of San Vitale, apparently in the hope of inducing Henry to ease Fisher's treatment. The effect was precisely the reverse, Henry forbade the cardinal's hat to be brought into England, declaring that he would send the head to Rome instead. In June a special commission for Fisher's trial was issued, and on Thursday, 17 June, he was arraigned in Westminster Hall before a court of seventeen, including Thomas Cromwell, Anne Boleyn's father, and ten justices. The charge was treason, in that he denied that the king was the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Since he had been deprived of his position of Bishop of Rochester by the Act of Attainder, he was treated as a commoner, and tried by jury. The only testimony was that of Richard Rich. John Fisher was found guilty and condemned to be hanged, drawn, and quartered at Tyburn.

However, a public outcry was brewing among the London populace who saw a sinister irony in the parallels between the conviction of Fisher and that of his patronal namesake, Saint John the Baptist, who was executed by King Herod Antipas for challenging the validity of Herod's marriage to his brother's divorcée Herodias. For fear of John Fisher's living through his patronal feast day, that of the Nativity of St John the Baptist on 24 June, and of attracting too much public sympathy, King Henry commuted the sentence to that of beheading, to be accomplished before 23 June, the Vigil of the feast of the Nativity of St John the Baptist. His execution on Tower Hill on 22 June 1535, had the opposite effect from that which King Henry VIII intended. John Fisher's beheading created yet another ironic parallel with that of the martyrdom of St John the Baptist who was also beheaded; his death also happened on the feast day of St Alban, the first martyr of Britain.

Fisher's last moments were thoroughly in keeping with his previous life. He met death with a calm dignified courage which profoundly impressed those present. His body was treated with particular rancour, apparently on Henry's orders, being stripped and left on the scaffold until the evening, when it was taken on pikes and thrown naked into a rough grave in the churchyard of All Hallows' Barking, also known as All Hallows-by-the-Tower. There was no funeral prayer. A fortnight later, his body was laid beside that of Sir Thomas More in the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula within the Tower of London. Fisher's head was stuck upon a pole on London Bridge but its ruddy and lifelike appearance excited so much attention that, after a fortnight, it was thrown into the Thames, its place being taken by that of Sir Thomas More, whose martyrdom, also at Tower Hill, occurred on 6 July.

Fisher was a figure universally esteemed throughout Europe and notwithstanding the subsequent efforts of the English government, was to remain so. In the Decree of Beatification issued on 29 December 1886 by Pope Leo XIII, when 54 English martyrs were beatified, the greatest place was given to Fisher. He was later canonised, on 19 May 1935, by Pope Pius XI along with Thomas More,^[5] after the presentation of a petition by English Catholics.

Portraits[link]

Several portraits of Fisher exist, the most prominent being by Hans Holbein the Younger in the Royal Collection; and a few secondary relics are extant.

Relic[link]

Fisher's walking-staff is in the possession of the Eyston family of East Hendred, in Oxfordshire (formerly Berkshire).^[6]

Cinematic and television portrayals[link]

John Fisher was portrayed by veteran actor Joseph O'Conor in the film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), by Bosco Hogan in the miniseries The Tudors, and by Geoffrey Lewis in the 1971 miniseries The Six Wives of Henry VIII.

Writings[link]

A list of Fisher's writings is found in Joseph Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of the English Catholics (London, s.d.), II, 262–270. There are twenty-six works in all, printed and manuscript, mostly ascetical or controversial treatises, several of which have been reprinted many times. The original editions are very rare and valuable. The principal are:

• Treatise concernynge...the seven penytencyall Psalms" (London, 1508);
• Sermon...agayn ye pernicyous doctrin of Martin Luther (London, 1521);
• Defensio Henrici VIII" (Cologne, 1525);
• De Veritate Corporis et Sanguinis Christi in Eucharistia, adversus Johannem Oecolampadium (Cologne, 1527);
• The Ballad of Barry Buttock, a Cautionary Tale (London, 1529);
• De Causa Matrimonii...Henrici VIII cum Catharina Aragonensi (Alcalá de Henares, 1530);
• The Wayes to Perfect Religion (London, 1535);
• A Spirituall Consolation written...to hys sister Elizabeth (London, 1735).

Patron[link]

• St John Fisher Catholic Church, Holland Park West (Tarragindi), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.^[7]
• St John Fisher College at the University of Tasmania in Hobart
• St John Fisher Catholic High schools in Harrogate, Wigan, Dewsbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme and Bracken Ridge^[8] (Qld, Australia) are named after him, as is Purley John Fisher RFC and Fisher Athletic F.C. of Rotherhithe.
• St John Fisher is the patron saint of the Cambridge University Catholic Chaplaincy.
• There is only one school in the UK that is called 'The John Fisher School', as it was named before Fisher was canonized. It is located in Purley, Surrey.
• St John Fisher Roman Catholic School in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire.
• St John Fisher Roman Catholic Comprehensive in Chatham, Kent.
• St John Fisher House, Reading - the headquarters of the FSSP in England and Wales.^[9]
• Formerly, there was the Saint John Fisher Roman Catholic Junior High School in Hull, East Yorkshire, that operated between c. 1966 – c. 1988, when the school system in the city was restructured.
• St John Fisher Roman Catholic Primary School in Sheffield, which was founded in 1957.
• Formerly, there was St John Fisher Roman Catholic Secondary School, Woodhouse, Sheffield (now a training school for Fire Fighters)
• Formerly St John Fisher RC First School on the Church Hill Estate, Redditch, Worcestershire. This is now a community centre for the estate.
• St John's House, Ampleforth College is also named after him.
• St John Fisher Catholic Church in Tulsa, Oklahoma and one near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
• Saint John Fisher College in Rochester, New York
• Saint John of Rochester Catholic Church in Fairport, New York
• Saint John Fisher parish, Kidbrooke, London^[10]
• St. John Fisher Catholic Church, Rancho Palos Verdes, California^[11]
• Saint John Fisher Church, Newtown, Ohio
• Saint John Fisher Catholic Church, Oakland County, Rochester, Michigan
• Saint John Fisher Catholic Church and School, Portland, Oregon^[12]
• Saint John Fisher R.C Primary School, Alvaston, Derby UK
• Saint John Fisher Catholic Church and School, Chicago, IL (Located in the West Beverly neighborhood)
• Saint John Fisher Roman Catholic Church, Shepperton, London, UK
• Saint John Fisher Roman Catholic Church, Rochester, Kent, UK
• Fisher Downside Amateur Boxing Club, Bermondsey, London, UK
• St John Fisher and Thomas More RC High School, Colne Lancs
• St John Fisher Catholic Church in Marlborough, Connecticut.^[13]

See also[link]

• List of Erasmus's correspondents

Further reading[link]

• E. Surtz, "The Works and Days of John Fisher," Boston: Harvard University Press, 1967.
• E.E. Reynolds, "Saint John Fisher," Wheathampstead: Anthony Clarke, 1972.
• "Humanism, Reform and the Reformation: The Career of Bishop John Fisher," edited by B. Bradshaw & Eamon Duffy, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• Richard Rex, "The Theology of John Fisher," Cambridge University Press
• "The English Works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1469–1535): Sermons and other Writings, 1520–1535," edited by Cecilia A. Hatt, Oxford University Press, 2002.

John Fisher is remembered at New Hall School and is one of their houses

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "St. John Fisher". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. 
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London, J. M. Dent & Sons; New York, E. P. Dutton.

External links[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia: St. John Fisher
• Fisher House – Catholic Chaplaincy to the University of Cambridge
• John Fisher School, Purley
• St John Fisher Catholic High School, Dewsbury
• Memorial Page on FindaGrave
• St. John Fisher - Bishop and Martyr from St. John Fisher Catholic Church, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA
•  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fisher, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• Media related to John Fisher at Wikimedia Commons

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